Al Gore is not going to take any back up position in a Hillary Clinton presidency. Well, tell us something we don’t know! He says that if he’s ever to enter politics again it will be as a candidate for president. What he didn’t say is that he wants to wait another four more years to see how many of his global warming ideas are correct. Don’t we all!

The reduction in hurricanes this 2007 season didn’t help!

Recent stories on the polar bears didn’t help.

But maybe the news about penguins can save Al’s bacon.

Antarctica’s penguin population has slumped because of global warming as melting ice has destroyed nesting sites and reduced their sources of food, a WWF report said on Tuesday. The Antarctic peninsula is warming five times faster than the average in the rest of the world, affecting four penguin species.

A report entitled, “Antarctic Penguins and Climate Change”, said sea ice covered 40 per cent less area than it did 26 years ago off the West Antarctic Peninsula, leading to a fall in stocks of krill, the main source of food for the chinstrap and gentoo penguins.

Meanwhile, an international team of scientists skeptical of man-made climate fears promoted by the UN and former Vice President Al Gore, descended on Bali this week to urge the world to “have the courage to do nothing” in response to UN demands.

Maybe we’ll know in the next four years and then Al might be able to run for president. If the penguin study has it right. But then again, that would be 2012 end of the world scenario. Who’d want to be the president presiding over that?



By: Ernie Fitzpatrick

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You cannot plan effectively for your future until you understand what climate change holds for you. If you decided to do that then the Greenhouse Effect would be the first thing you would want to master. It’s not difficult and you will own it by the time you finish this page.

About 30% of the light arriving from the sun hits our atmosphere and bounces off, back out into space. The balance of the sun’s light continues on, toward the planet’s surface, where it will encounter something that is either light or dark in color . When the surface is light in color, it reflects the sun’s light back through the atmosphere and then on out into space. If the incoming light from the sun encounters a dark colored surface, it is absorbed and then converted into infra red – infra red is heat. The infra-red then rises into the atmosphere where a very small portion of it will bump into molecules of greenhouse gas, such as Carbon Dioxide (CO2). When that collision occurs, the greenhouse gas (GHG) molecule begins to vibrate slightly and then it tosses the infra red heat back toward the planet’s surface. That’s the greenhouse effect.

If the greenhouse effect did not happen, every night when the heated side of the planet turned away from the sun, the heat collected that day would all escape into space and earth would be turned into an icy and mostly lifeless planet. 

You may have already figured out that the quantity of heat that gets reflected back toward earth, depends entirely on how many molecules of greenhouse gas (GHGs) are up there in the atmosphere. The levels of GHGs in the atmosphere are always changing – slowly. Over the past few million years the levels of CO2 (the principal GHG) have ranged from a low level of 180 parts per million (ppm) to a high of 280ppm. It takes about 20,000 years for the GHG levels to rise from that low point (180ppm), to the high point of 280ppm and about 100,000 years to return to the low point. Then it starts over. 

The quantities of CO2 involved are very small -180ppm expressed as a percentage of the entire atmosphere looks like this: 0.018% or, eighteen one thousandths of one percent. That still amazes me – that’s a very small amount of stuff to be controlling something as important as the temperature of earth. Historically, at Antarctica where the measurements just mentioned were taken, the temperature increased or decreased 1ºC (1.8ºF) for every 10ppm change in the level of CO2. For perspective, the current increase in mean temperature being attributed to human additions of CO2 to the atmosphere, is about 0.6ºC. For me, these numbers are so small and take so long to change, that this greenhouse effect looks like a very sensitive system indeed, with very small additions and subtractions (10ppm change caused a 1ºC change in temperature, plus or minus) of GHGs causing profound changes in the natural environment. As of 2009, we have added 110ppm of CO2 to the normal level of CO2 to the atmosphere – the level is now 390ppm and rising. Breathtaking, don’t you think?

 (Peer reviewed research, supporting the claims made in this factoid, can be found at the web site shown below)



By: Rich Albertson

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Cruise ships are a major and growing source of ocean pollution. Cruise ships produce and dump millions of gallons of inadequately treated sewage and wastewater into the sea daily. 

Take a look at what cruise ships generate everyday:

1) Blackwater (Human waste)

Blackwater is sewage, wastewater from toilets and medical facilities, which can contain harmful bacteria, pathogens, viruses, intestinal parasites, and harmful nutrients. Discharges of untreated or inadequately treated sewage can cause bacterial and viral contamination of fisheries and shellfish beds, producing risks to public health. 

2) Graywater

Graywater is wastewater generated by laundries, showers, sinks and dishwashers. It contains detergents, cleaners, oil and grease, metals, pesticides, and medical, dental and other forms of toxic waste. Waste that should be segregated and disposed at land-based facilities is often pumped into graywater. 

3) Garbage and solid waste

This trash of ocean pollution includes glass, plastics, bottles, aluminium, steel, cans, paper, cardboard and food wastes. Approximately 75 to 80 percent is incinerated at sea and then the ash is dumped into the ocean. It can be either non-hazardous or hazardous in nature.

4) Hazardous waste (toxic waste)

Cruise ships produce hazardous wastes (toxic) from a number of on-board activities and processes, including silver, mercury, lead and cadmium through dry cleaning, photo processing photographic processing, print shops, painting activities, equipment cleaning and other sources.

5) Oily bilge water

Residual oil from routine engine maintenance mixes with bilge water and collects at the bottom of the ship. Ocean pollution like oil, gasoline, and by-products from the biological breakdown of petroleum products can harm fish and wildlife and pose threats to human health if ingested.

6) Ballast water, 1,000 metric tons per release.

Ballast water is often taken on in one region and discharged in another.Cruise ships take in millions gallons of ballast water to stabilize and trim the vessel, discharge back into the ocean as needed to maintain and to ensure safe operating conditions. 

> Ballast water is often contains non-native, nuisance, exotic species that can cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems. 

> Non-native species are the number two cause of biodiversity loss worldwide.

7) Air pollution

Air pollution generated by cruise ship diesel engines that burn high sulfur content fuel, producing sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and particulate, in addition to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons.

> Diesel exhaust has been classified by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a likely human carcinogen, i.e. a substance, radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of cancer or in the increase of its propagation.

The diverse collection of wastes described above, including toxic waste,human waste and chemical pollution contaminate the sea water, damage corals, deplete the oxygen supply in the ocean, and harm both marine and human life.

Source Article: Visit http://www.smart-guide-to-world-cruise-ship.com/ocean-pollution.html for your good research purpose to learn more detail about ocean pollution done by cruise ship!

 

 



By: Smart Guide to World Cruise Ship

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An alarm is being raised about global warming causing dramatic rises in the temperature of ocean waters. Scientists are studying warming waters all over the globe to determine the extent of this rise in temperatures.

The consequences of global warming are far-reaching. One of the most devastating effects of global warming is an impact on tropical storms. Hurricanes that would have been category 3 storms in years past are now category 4 or above because they are energized when they pick up warmer-than-normal ocean water. There has been a significant increase in these higher intensity storms over the last 35 years. In 2005, the Atlantic was bombarded with 27 tropical storms powerful enough to receive a name, and fifteen of them developed into hurricanes. Five of these storms were classified as category 4 hurricanes and four reached the level of category 5. Hurricane Katrina made a terrible mark on history in August of 2005. It became the costliest hurricane in American history and also one of most lethal.

Earth’s ice is crucial in order to maintain the delicate balance in the environment. As global warming causes temperatures to rise in the oceans, glaciers and icecaps are melting more rapidly. One particular ice shelf in Antarctica, the northern section of the Larson B shelf, collapsed in recent years. Scientists suddenly realized how fast the ice shelf could disintegrate. The polar ice cap is dissolving at an astonishing rate as well–9% per decade. This recent phenomenon is a definite cause for alarm. In the last half century, the thickness of ice in the Arctic has decreased by 40%.

Perennial sea ice in the Arctic has been receding as well. In 2005 there was a record low in square miles of sea ice. Just two years later, in 2007, the record was broken again with half a million square miles less perennial ice than in 2005. Some scientists predict that all the sea ice will be gone by 2040.

Melting ice will also cause sea levels to rise. When this happens, islands are lost and coastal communities are flooded. Various suggestions have been made about the levels that the water could reach, anywhere from 10 to 23 inches by 2100.

Global warming has the potential to make the earth a very inhospitable place to live. Rising temperatures in ocean waters are a clear indication that the process has begun. With the melting of ice in the glaciers, icecaps, and on the sea, it is a matter of time before global warming has even more harmful effects. It is up to the people of the world to do what they can to stop or slow this alarming environmental problem.



By: Mike Hirn

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We all know that Tenzing Norgay and Sir Edmund Hillary were the first mountaineers to conquer Mount Everest (8,848 m), and many of us will have heard that Sir Ranulph Fiennes was the first British pensioner to make the summit in 2009. But there are always new records being set and new challenges being launched from Everest Base Camp. It seems everything about this historic staging area is dramatic: the determination and the accomplishments of the people that pass through Base Camp, and Everest’s spectacular form towering above.

Everest Milestones

There’s an unusual long-distance traveller on the move right now that has a close association with Mount Everest. Curiously, the traveller is not a person but a moon rock. The lunar sample, collected from the Sea of Tranquillity during the historic Apollo 11 landing, will be a passenger on a journey back out of the earth’s atmosphere as part of a 2010 NASA launch to the International Space Station.

The long-travelling rock will be partnered with one collected from Mount Everest and made part of a display in the ISS, so that both the Moon and the Earth will be represented in the space station that floats between the two celestial bodies. It is a simple gesture that demonstrates our ingenuity and determination to overcome great distances and difficulty in the name of exploration. The moon rock was with the astronaut Scott Parazynski when he climbed from Everest Base Camp to the mountain’s summit in May 2009 and will be united in orbit with the Everest rock early in February 2010.

Records set in Stone

The following month, Everest Base Camp will become home for a young man with big ambitions. At the age of just thirteen, Jordan Romero from California aims to become the youngest person to climb the highest peaks in seven continents. Everest will be the last mountain on his list to climb to complete the prestigious Seven Peaks Challenge.

Jordan will be following in the youthful footsteps of the current record holder, Johnny Strange, who began his series of seven mighty climbs at the age of twelve, and completed the Seven Peaks five years later in June 2009, setting a world record in the process. If all goes well for Jordan Romero, he will better Johnny’s record by a full three years, which he says will make him feel “super stoked”.

The Seven Peaks Challenge is no mean feat, and it has taken the teenager all over the world. Jordan has climbed the highest mountains in the Andes and Australia; he has travelled to the hard to reach Vinson Massif (4,892 m) in Antarctica, and has conquered Mt Kilimanjaro (5,892 m), Elbrus (5,642 m) in Russia, and McKinley (6,194 m) in Alaska. Jordan’s seventh expedition in the series will begin with a gradual acclimatisation along Everest Base Camp trek, following on from a number of preparatory climbs he has already made to get his body used to the high altitude. Then Everest is waiting.

Jordan has estimated that he will have to make a number of training runs up the mountain from Everest Base Camp before he will be ready for a summit bid, a process which could take as long as two months to complete, weather permitting.



By: Jude Limburn Turner

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As an independent Australian researcher and scientist I have recently turned my attention to investigating and bringing out the truth about Global Warming. What I found shocked me. Climate change is happening now and there is no escaping it.

“Much more likely than not, global warming is upon us. It is prudent to expect that weather patterns will change and the seas will rise, in an ever worsening pattern, through our lifetimes and on into our grandchildren’s…Nearly everyone in the world will need to adjust. Citizens will need reliable information. So it is an important job, in some ways our top priority, to improve the communication of knowledge”. – Prof. Spencer Weart

The fact is we aren’t being told the whole truth about global warming. For a start, our best climate scientists are being muzzled, harassed and forbidden from talking to the press about the things they know but dare not say. On top of that, fossil fuel companies have been avidly campaigning to spread misinformation and confusion about climate change and global warming…. After all, the last thing they want is control or limitation over their industry…

Yet, nearly every week now a shocking climate catastrophe hits the news… Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, mega-droughts in Australia, the Asian tsunami, laval mud oozing uncontrollably out of the ground in Indonesia, stunning melting of sea ice in the Arctic, the collapse of massive ice shelves in Antarctica, floating icebergs off New Zealand’s coast, accelerating glaciers in Greenland, and only this month, the earthquake off Japan measuring a massive 8.1 on the Richter Scale they are all (yes, even the seismic activity) signs of spiraling climate change… and, we ain’t seen nothing yet!

Truth is, climate change is not some far-way problem that our kids will have to deal with, as scientists at first thought it would be. Information that has only come to light in the last few years strongly suggests that it could get a lot worse very, very quickly. It could even be bad enough to threaten our food and water supplies, and is a looming threat to low-lying, heavily populated coastlines around the world….

Already we are seeing South Pacific islands submerging under the onslaught of rising seas levels.

Every day climate extremes are being recorded around the world that dramatically exceed official predictions. Groundbreaking research continues to uncover fundamental truths about climate that have yet to be incorporated into climate models and predictions. While many official scenarios still assume that changes will unfold in a gradual, linear fashion, newly understood climate forces have the potential to create rapidly accelerating, exponential shifts.

And fresh evidence about Earth’s climate past has only recently revealed that centuries of slow, creeping variations in our planet’s climate history have been punctuated by stunningly rapid change. No longer is climate seen as an inherently stable system that gradually shifts from one state to another. Our climate system has shown that it is capable of responding to relatively small upsets with radical instability and upheaval. Could it be possible that it is happening again? My research suggests that it is.

“Large, abrupt and widespread climate changes with major impacts have occurred repeatedly in the past, when the earth system was forced across thresholds. Although abrupt climate change can occur for many reasons, it is conceivable that human forcing of climate change is increasing the probability of large, abrupt events.” – Prof. R. B. Alley

But scientists have been a bit late to wake up. It was not until 2005 that the phrase ‘tipping point’ appeared in publications on climate, implying that it could change not only rapidly, but irreversibly. Such tipping points indicate a threshold of change beyond which the system loses its stability and transforms spontaneously into a radically new state….cold to hot, warm to freezing, wet to dry, calm to chaotic. It is now understood that even small creeping changes…like current global warming… can induce sudden, irreversible flips from one climate state to another.

We are now seeing possible tipping points in the melting of polar ice caps, and the thawing of tundra, both of which contribute to the warming that triggered them, and dramatically accelerating global warming further. In this way, rather than steady, gradual changes, what we could be facing is an abrupt rearrangement of our climate.

A report by the U.S. National Research Council first suggested in 2002 that abrupt and potentially catastrophic climate changes are not only possible but likely in the future.

“The world is teetering on the brink of abrupt climate change: a change that will be so rapid and

unexpected that human and natural systems will have difficulty adapting to it “

- National Research Council.

The real question is what does it mean for our future?

It is no longer easy to deny that the climate is changing. The risk is that it may change quicker than we can fully understand or accept it. Trouble is we can’t really afford not to act now… We could easily be caught unprepared for this.

Right now in Australia, for example, we are heading into yet another El Nino event, of continuing drought conditions and extreme heat. El Nino events are becoming progressively more frequent and more intense with climate change, and are tipped to become the new “normal” climate for countries bordering the south Pacific. So we can anticipate tightening water resources and widespread failure of food crops in Australia. We will be forced to rethink the way we use…and waste… many essential resources that we have, until now, taken for granted.

My research into the latest facts on climate change reveal that this just one small aspect of the monumental climate shocks that are on the cards. Others who know, like me, are alarmed at what lies ahead. Unfortunately we missed the opportunity to avert this crisis with minor tweeks to our lifestyle and behavior, like changing light bulbs or catching the bus now and then. This late in the day we should be seriously preparing for the shocks ahead, because time is running out.

We need to rethink the way we live our lives if we want to have any future at all.

This is a volatile world. If climate shifted abruptly in the past, not just once, but repeatedly, it’s inevitable it will happen again. The question is, when?

I expect that this article has raised a lot more questions than it has answered. If you’d like to know more, you can get in-depth information and regular updates at www.WakeUp2GlobalWarming.org



By: Dr Margaret Lillian

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Your country may be in shambles. Or you’re just in need of a change. After all, isn’t a change as good as a holiday? Living in another country on a

permanent basis is whole different story. It takes at least 2 years to settle into your adoptive country. This should be reason enough to do some research about the country you wish to immigrate to, before you take the plunge. It certainly couldn’t hurt.

So, you’ve called a consultant and you’re ready to make the move. Not so quick tiger. Have you considered what the lifestyle is like in your chosen country? Do you know what the exchange rate is? Sure, you’ve always wanted to live in Antarctica, but are you sure you’ll withstand the weather?

Let’s face it

immigration is a huge choice to make. So, you’d better make the or you might end up kicking yourself.

There are a few questions you should ask yourself about a country before you decide to make it your home. Remember, you’re making a long-term decision, so you’d better make the right choice.

Will I enjoy the culture?

Keep in mind, not only are you leaving your home country behind, you’re leaving a culture behind. Research the lifestyle of the country. Ensure that you find it a comfortable transition. Is the lifestyle close to the lifestyle you’re accustomed to? Consider whether the people are generally distant in you country of choice. If you’re a warm, welcoming person that is used to borrowing a cup of sugar from your neighbours, then you should find a country that will accept your ways.

Is the weather tolerable?

If you were born and bred in sunny Cape Town, it may take some time before you warm up top the grey skies in London town. So, gather enough information that you possibly can about the weather in the country that you’d like to immigrate to. What’s winter like over there? Of course, if you’re planning to immigrate to Australia there are no worries for you!

What is the cost of living?

If you’re immigrating, the last thing you want is to leave for a country that will cost a fortune to live in. For example, in 2006, in London, a six figure US salary will convert to about £52K sterling. In this instance, you could live well in London on that income as the average was about £30K.

What is the native language?

It makes sense to learn the native language. So, perhaps before you immigrate ensure that you at least are fluent in basic French (Canada immigration),or which ever language is used in the country. It will simply make the settling in a bit easier.

Is crime a huge problem in this country?

The most important factor is to ensure that you have a strong support base. Do you have family in your chosen country? Perhaps you have friends or work colleagues that reside there. Immigrating to another country is a major decision. It’s certainly not a case of bag your bags and leave. So, now that you’ve made the life-changing decision to leave, perhaps it’ll do you good to research a little more.

 

 



By: Lindsay Wagner

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I INTRODUCTION

Earth (planet), one of nine planets in the solar system, the only planet known to harbor life, and the “home” of human beings. From space Earth resembles a big blue marble with swirling white clouds floating above blue oceans. About 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by water, which is essential to life. The rest is land, mostly in the form of continents that rise above the oceans.

Earth An oxygen-rich and protective atmosphere, moderate temperatures, abundant water, and a varied chemical composition enable Earth to support life, the only planet known to harbor life. The planet is composed of rock and metal, which are present in molten form beneath its surface. The Apollo 17 spacecraft took this snapshot in 1972 of the Arabian Peninsula, the African continent, and Antarctica (most of the white area near the bottom).

 Earth’s surface is surrounded by a layer of gases known as the atmosphere, which extends upward from the surface, slowly thinning out into space. Below the surface is a hot interior of rocky material and two core layers composed of the metals nickel and iron in solid and liquid form.

Unlike the other planets, Earth has a unique set of characteristics ideally suited to supporting life as we know it. It is neither too hot, like Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, nor too cold, like distant Mars and the even more distant outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and tiny Pluto. Earth’s atmosphere includes just the right amount of gases that trap heat from the Sun, resulting in a moderate climate suitable for water to exist in liquid form. The atmosphere also helps block radiation from the Sun that would be harmful to life. Earth’s atmosphere distinguishes it from the planet Venus, which is otherwise much like Earth. Venus is about the same size and mass as Earth and is also neither too near nor too far from the Sun. But because Venus has too much heat-trapping carbon dioxide in its atmosphere, its surface is extremely hot—462°C (864°F)—hot enough to melt lead and too hot for life to exist.

Although Earth is the only planet known to have life, scientists do not rule out the possibility that life may once have existed on other planets or their moons, or may exist today in primitive form. Mars, for example, has many features that resemble river channels, indicating that liquid water once flowed on its surface. If so, life may also have evolved there, and evidence for it may one day be found in fossil form. Water still exists on Mars, but it is frozen in polar ice caps, in permafrost, and possibly in rocks below the surface.

For thousands of years, human beings could only wonder about Earth and the other observable planets in the solar system. Many early ideas—for example, that the Earth was a sphere and that it traveled around the Sun—were based on brilliant reasoning. However, it was only with the development of the scientific method and scientific instruments, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, that humans began to gather data that could be used to verify theories about Earth and the rest of the solar system. By studying fossils found in rock layers, for example, scientists realized that the Earth was much older than previously believed. And with the use of telescopes, new planets such as Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto were discovered.

Earth from the Moon In the late 1960s, people saw for the first time what Earth looked like from space. This famous photo of Earth was taken by astronauts on the Apollo 8 mission as they orbited the Moon in 1968.

In the second half of the 20th century, more advances in the study of Earth and the solar system occurred due to the development of rockets that could send spacecraft beyond Earth. Human beings were able to study and observe Earth from space with satellites equipped with scientific instruments. Astronauts landed on the Moon and gathered ancient rocks that revealed much about the early solar system. During this remarkable advancement in human history, humans also sent unmanned spacecraft to the other planets and their moons. Spacecraft have now visited all of the planets except Pluto. The study of other planets and moons has provided new insights about Earth, just as the study of the Sun and other stars like it has helped shape new theories about how Earth and the rest of the solar system formed.

As a result of this recent space exploration, we now know that Earth is one of the most geologically active of all the planets and moons in the solar system. Earth is constantly changing. Over long periods of time land is built up and worn away, oceans are formed and re-formed, and continents move around, break up, and merge.

Life itself contributes to changes on Earth, especially in the way living things can alter Earth’s atmosphere. For example, Earth at one time had the same amount of carbon dioxide in its atmosphere as Venus now has, but early forms of life helped remove this carbon dioxide over millions of years. These life forms also added oxygen to Earth’s atmosphere and made it possible for animal life to evolve on land.

A variety of scientific fields have broadened our knowledge about Earth, including biogeography, climatology, geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, and zoogeography. Collectively, these fields are known as Earth science. By studying Earth’s atmosphere, its surface, and its interior and by studying the Sun and the rest of the solar system, scientists have learned much about how Earth came into existence, how it changed, and why it continues to change.

II EARTH, THE SOLAR SYSTEM, AND THE GALAXY

 

Earth is the third planet from the Sun, after Mercury and Venus. The average distance between Earth and the Sun is 150 million km (93 million mi). Earth and all the other planets in the solar system revolve, or orbit, around the Sun due to the force of gravitation. The Earth travels at a velocity of about 107,000 km/h (about 67,000 mph) as it orbits the Sun. All but one of the planets orbit the Sun in the same plane—that is, if an imaginary line were extended from the center of the Sun to the outer regions of the solar system, the orbital paths of the planets would intersect that line. The exception is Pluto, which has an eccentric (unusual) orbit.

 

Earth’s orbital path is not quite a perfect circle but instead is slightly elliptical (oval-shaped). For example, at maximum distance Earth is about 152 million km (about 95 million mi) from the Sun; at minimum distance Earth is about 147 million km (about 91 million mi) from the Sun. If Earth orbited the Sun in a perfect circle, it would always be the same distance from the Sun.

The solar system, in turn, is part of the Milky Way Galaxy, a collection of billions of stars bound together by gravity. The Milky Way has armlike discs of stars that spiral out from its center. The solar system is located in one of these spiral arms, known as the Orion arm, which is about two-thirds of the way from the center of the Galaxy. In most parts of the Northern Hemisphere, this disc of stars is visible on a summer night as a dense band of light known as the Milky Way.

Milky Way Galaxy Our own solar system exists within one of the spiral arms of the disk-shaped galaxy called the Milky Way. This false-color image looks toward the center of the Milky Way, located 30,000 light-years away. Bright star clusters are visible along with darker areas of dust and gas.Photo Researchers, Inc./Morton-Milon/Science Source

 

Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. Its diameter, measured around the equator, is 12,756 km (7,926 mi). Earth is not a perfect sphere but is slightly flattened at the poles. Its polar diameter, measured from the North Pole to the South Pole, is somewhat less than the equatorial diameter because of this flattening. Although Earth is the largest of the four planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—that make up the inner solar system (the planets closest to the Sun), it is small compared with the giant planets of the outer solar system—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. For example, the largest planet, Jupiter, has a diameter at its equator of 143,000 km (89,000 mi), 11 times greater than that of Earth. A famous atmospheric feature on Jupiter, the Great Red Spot, is so large that three Earths would fit inside it.

Earth has one natural satellite, the Moon. The Moon orbits the Earth, completing one revolution in an elliptical path in 27 days 7 hr 43 min 11.5 sec. The Moon orbits the Earth because of the force of Earth’s gravity. However, the Moon also exerts a gravitational force on the Earth. Evidence for the Moon’s gravitational influence can be seen in the ocean tides. A popular theory suggests that the Moon split off from Earth more than 4 billion years ago when a large meteorite or small planet struck the Earth.

 

As Earth revolves around the Sun, it rotates, or spins, on its axis, an imaginary line that runs between the North and South poles. The period of one complete rotation is defined as a day and takes 23 hr 56 min 4.1 sec. The period of one revolution around the Sun is defined as a year, or 365.2422 solar days, or 365 days 5 hr 48 min 46 sec. Earth also moves along with the Milky Way Galaxy as the Galaxy rotates and moves through space. It takes more than 200 million years for the stars in the Milky Way to complete one revolution around the Galaxy’s center.

Earth’s axis of rotation is inclined (tilted) 23.5° relative to its plane of revolution around the Sun. This inclination of the axis creates the seasons and causes the height of the Sun in the sky at noon to increase and decrease as the seasons change. The Northern Hemisphere receives the most energy from the Sun when it is tilted toward the Sun. This orientation corresponds to summer in the Northern Hemisphere and winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere receives maximum energy when it is tilted toward the Sun, corresponding to summer in the Southern Hemisphere and winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Fall and spring occur in between these orientations.

III EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a layer of different gases that extends from Earth’s surface to the exosphere, the outer limit of the atmosphere, about 9,600 km (6,000 mi) above the surface. Near Earth’s surface, the atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (21 percent). The remaining 1 percent of atmospheric gases consists of argon (0.9 percent); carbon dioxide (0.03 percent); varying amounts of water vapor; and trace amounts of hydrogen, nitrous oxide, ozone, methane, carbon monoxide, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon.

A Layers of the Atmosphere

Divisions of the Atmosphere Without our atmosphere, there would be no life on Earth. A relatively thin envelope, the atmosphere consists of layers of gases that support life and provide protection from harmful radiation.© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

 

The layers of the atmosphere are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere. The troposphere is the layer in which weather occurs and extends from the surface to about 16 km (about 10 mi) above sea level at the equator. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which has an upper boundary of about 50 km (about 30 mi) above sea level. The layer from 50 to 90 km (30 to 60 mi) is called the mesosphere. At an altitude of about 90 km, temperatures begin to rise. The layer that begins at this altitude is called the thermosphere because of the high temperatures that can be reached in this layer (about 1200°C, or about 2200°F). The region beyond the thermosphere is called the exosphere. The thermosphere and the exosphere overlap with another region of the atmosphere known as the ionosphere, a layer or layers of ionized air extending from almost 60 km (about 50 mi) above Earth’s surface to altitudes of 1,000 km (600 mi) and more.

Earth’s atmosphere and the way it interacts with the oceans and radiation from the Sun are responsible for the planet’s climate and weather. The atmosphere plays a key role in supporting life. Almost all life on Earth uses atmospheric oxygen for energy in a process known as cellular respiration, which is essential to life. The atmosphere also helps moderate Earth’s climate by trapping radiation from the Sun that is reflected from Earth’s surface. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere act as “greenhouse gases.” Like the glass in a greenhouse, they trap infrared, or heat, radiation from the Sun in the lower atmosphere and thereby help warm Earth’s surface. Without this greenhouse effect, heat radiation would escape into space, and Earth would be too cold to support most forms of life.

Other gases in the atmosphere are also essential to life. The trace amount of ozone found in Earth’s stratosphere blocks harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Without the ozone layer, life as we know it could not survive on land. Earth’s atmosphere is also an important part of a phenomenon known as the water cycle or the hydrologic cycle. See also Atmosphere.

B The Atmosphere and the Water Cycle

 

The water cycle simply means that Earth’s water is continually recycled between the oceans, the atmosphere, and the land. All of the water that exists on Earth today has been used and reused for billions of years. Very little water has been created or lost during this period of time. Water is constantly moving on Earth’s surface and changing back and forth between ice, liquid water, and water vapor.

The water cycle begins when the Sun heats the water in the oceans and causes it to evaporate and enter the atmosphere as water vapor. Some of this water vapor falls as precipitation directly back into the oceans, completing a short cycle. Some of the water vapor, however, reaches land, where it may fall as snow or rain. Melted snow or rain enters rivers or lakes on the land. Due to the force of gravity, the water in the rivers eventually empties back into the oceans. Melted snow or rain also may enter the ground. Groundwater may be stored for hundreds or thousands of years, but it will eventually reach the surface as springs or small pools known as seeps. Even snow that forms glacial ice or becomes part of the polar caps and is kept out of the cycle for thousands of years eventually melts or is warmed by the Sun and turned into water vapor, entering the atmosphere and falling again as precipitation. All water that falls on land eventually returns to the ocean, completing the water cycle.

IV EARTH’S SURFACE

Earth’s surface is the outermost layer of the planet. It includes the hydrosphere, the crust, and the biosphere.

A Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere consists of the bodies of water that cover 71 percent of Earth’s surface. The largest of these are the oceans, which contain over 97 percent of all water on Earth. Glaciers and the polar ice caps contain just over 2 percent of Earth’s water in the form of solid ice. Only about 0.6 percent is under the surface as groundwater. Nevertheless, groundwater is 36 times more plentiful than water found in lakes, inland seas, rivers, and in the atmosphere as water vapor. Only 0.017 percent of all the water on Earth is found in lakes and rivers. And a mere 0.001 percent is found in the atmosphere as water vapor. Most of the water in glaciers, lakes, inland seas, rivers, and groundwater is fresh and can be used for drinking and agriculture. Dissolved salts compose about 3.5 percent of the water in the oceans, however, making it unsuitable for drinking or agriculture unless it is treated to remove the salts.

B Crust

The crust consists of the continents, other land areas, and the basins, or floors, of the oceans. The dry land of Earth’s surface is called the continental crust. It is about 15 to 75 km (9 to 47 mi) thick. The oceanic crust is thinner than the continental crust. Its average thickness is 5 to 10 km (3 to 6 mi). The crust has a definite boundary called the Mohorovi

Oceanic crust and continental crust differ in the type of rocks they contain. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form when molten rock, called magma, cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks are usually created by the breakdown of igneous rocks. They tend to form in layers as small particles of other rocks or as the mineralized remains of dead animals and plants that have fused together over time. The remains of dead animals and plants occasionally become mineralized in sedimentary rock and are recognizable as fossils. Metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary or igneous rocks are altered by heat and pressure deep underground.

Oceanic crust consists of dark, dense igneous rocks, such as basalt and gabbro. Continental crust consists of lighter-colored, less dense igneous rocks, such as granite and diorite. Continental crust also includes metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks.

C Biosphere

The biosphere includes all the areas of Earth capable of supporting life. The biosphere ranges from about 10 km (about 6 mi) into the atmosphere to the deepest ocean floor. For a long time, scientists believed that all life depended on energy from the Sun and consequently could only exist where sunlight penetrated. In the 1970s, however, scientists discovered various forms of life around hydrothermal vents on the floor of the Pacific Ocean where no sunlight penetrated. They learned that primitive bacteria formed the basis of this living community and that the bacteria derived their energy from a process called chemosynthesis that did not depend on sunlight. Some scientists believe that the biosphere may extend relatively deep into Earth’s crust. They have recovered what they believe are primitive bacteria from deeply drilled holes below the surface.

D Changes to Earth’s Surface

Earth’s surface has been constantly changing ever since the planet formed. Most of these changes have been gradual, taking place over millions of years. Nevertheless, these gradual changes have resulted in radical modifications, involving the formation, erosion, and re-formation of mountain ranges, the movement of continents, the creation of huge supercontinents, and the breakup of supercontinents into smaller continents.

The weathering and erosion that result from the water cycle are among the principal factors responsible for changes to Earth’s surface. Another principal factor is the movement of Earth’s continents and seafloors and the buildup of mountain ranges due to a phenomenon known as plate tectonics. Heat is the basis for all of these changes. Heat in Earth’s interior is believed to be responsible for continental movement, mountain building, and the creation of new seafloor in ocean basins. Heat from the Sun is responsible for the evaporation of ocean water and the resulting precipitation that causes weathering and erosion. In effect, heat in Earth’s interior helps build up Earth’s surface while heat from the Sun helps wear down the surface.

D1 Weathering

Weathering is the breakdown of rock at and near the surface of Earth. Most rocks originally formed in a hot, high-pressure environment below the surface where there was little exposure to water. Once the rocks reached Earth’s surface, however, they were subjected to temperature changes and exposed to water. When rocks are subjected to these kinds of surface conditions, the minerals they contain tend to change. These changes constitute the process of weathering. There are two types of weathering: physical weathering and chemical weathering.

Physical weathering involves a decrease in the size of rock material. Freezing and thawing of water in rock cavities, for example, splits rock into small pieces because water expands when it freezes.

Chemical weathering involves a chemical change in the composition of rock. For example, feldspar, a common mineral in granite and other rocks, reacts with water to form clay minerals, resulting in a new substance with totally different properties than the parent feldspar. Chemical weathering is of significance to humans because it creates the clay minerals that are important components of soil, the basis of agriculture. Chemical weathering also causes the release of dissolved forms of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, and other chemical elements into surface water and groundwater. These elements are carried by surface water and groundwater to the sea and are the sources of dissolved salts in the sea.

D2 Erosion

Glacial Erosion Glaciers erode the earth’s surface through processes such as abrasion, crushing, and fracturing of the material in the glacier’s path. Glaciers move by growing or shrinking, depending on the climate. Moving glaciers erode and transport large quantities of rocks, sand, and other particles along their path. The icy path shown here is a moraine formed by a glacier in Switzerland.Photo Researchers, Inc./Paolo Koch

 

Erosion is the process that removes loose and weathered rock and carries it to a new site. Water, wind, and glacial ice combined with the force of gravity can cause erosion.

Erosion by running water is by far the most common process of erosion. It takes place over a longer period of time than other forms of erosion. When water from rain or melted snow moves downhill, it can carry loose rock or soil with it. Erosion by running water forms the familiar gullies and V-shaped valleys that cut into most landscapes. The force of the running water removes loose particles formed by weathering. In the process, gullies and valleys are lengthened, widened, and deepened. Often, water overflows the banks of the gullies or river channels, resulting in floods. Each new flood carries more material away to increase the size of the valley. Meanwhile, weathering loosens more and more material so the process continues.

Erosion by glacial ice is less common, but it can cause the greatest landscape changes in the shortest amount of time. Glacial ice forms in a region where snow fails to melt in the spring and summer and instead builds up as ice. For major glaciers to form, this lack of snowmelt has to occur for a number of years in areas with high precipitation. As ice accumulates and thickens, it flows as a solid mass. As it flows, it has a tremendous capacity to erode soil and even solid rock. Ice is a major factor in shaping some landscapes, especially mountainous regions. Glacial ice provides much of the spectacular scenery in these regions. Features such as horns (sharp mountain peaks), ar

Wind is an important cause of erosion only in arid (dry) regions. Wind carries sand and dust, which can scour even solid rock.

Many factors determine the rate and kind of erosion that occurs in a given area. The climate of an area determines the distribution, amount, and kind of precipitation that the area receives and thus the type and rate of weathering. An area with an arid climate erodes differently than an area with a humid climate. The elevation of an area also plays a role by determining the potential energy of running water. The higher the elevation the more energetically water will flow due to the force of gravity. The type of bedrock in an area (sandstone, granite, or shale) can determine the shapes of valleys and slopes, and the depth of streams.

A landscape’s geologic age—that is, how long current conditions of weathering and erosion have affected the area—determines its overall appearance. Relatively young landscapes tend to be more rugged and angular in appearance. Older landscapes tend to have more rounded slopes and hills. The oldest landscapes tend to be low-lying with broad, open river valleys and low, rounded hills. The overall effect of the wearing down of an area is to level the land; the tendency is toward the reduction of all land surfaces to sea level.

D3 Plate Tectonics

 

Opposing this tendency toward leveling is a force responsible for raising mountains and plateaus and for creating new landmasses. These changes to Earth’s surface occur in the outermost solid portion of Earth, known as the lithosphere. The lithosphere consists of the crust and another region known as the upper mantle and is approximately 65 to 100 km (40 to 60 mi) thick. Compared with the interior of the Earth, however, this region is relatively thin. The lithosphere is thinner in proportion to the whole Earth than the skin of an apple is to the whole apple.

Scientists believe that the lithosphere is broken into a series of plates, or segments. According to the theory of plate tectonics, these plates move around on Earth’s surface over long periods of time. Tectonics comes from the Greek word, tektonikos, which means “builder.”

According to the theory, the lithosphere is divided into large and small plates. The largest plates include the Pacific plate, the North American plate, the Eurasian plate, the Antarctic plate, the Indo-Australian plate, and the African plate. Smaller plates include the Cocos plate, the Nazca plate, the Philippine plate, and the Caribbean plate. Plate sizes vary a great deal. The Cocos plate is 2,000 km (1,000 mi) wide, while the Pacific plate is nearly 14,000 km (nearly 9,000 mi) wide.

These plates move in three different ways in relation to each other. They pull apart or move away from each other, they collide or move against each other, or they slide past each other as they move sideways. The movement of these plates helps explain many geological events, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions as well as mountain building and the formation of the oceans and continents.

?i? discontinuity, or simply the Moho. The boundary separates the crust from the underlying mantle, which is much thicker and is part of Earth’s interior.êtes (sharp ridges), glacially formed lakes, and U-shaped valleys are all the result of glacial erosion.



By: Mian Afaq Tariq

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Global warming refers to “the warming of the earth’s surface around the world, based on documented information on the temperature that has been maintained by humans since 1880″ (Nodvin, S. 2008).

There has been an increase in the news referring to Global Warming, March 27, 2008 the world woke up with a shocking event: the detachment of an ice sheet measuring 41 km by 2.5 km in Antarctica. Scientists argue that climate change is responsible for the rapid collapse of the ice cap that was detaching since the month of February, but global warming affects not only the polar icecaps, but also the fauna of tropical ecosystems, as this type of species “live to the limit of their maximum temperature, a slight increase in temperature is lethal” (Tewksbury, quoted by J. Tristan, R. 2008). Facts like these remind us that global warming is no longer an unknown subject and has become a problem that is part of our everyday life.

Despite the constant bombardment of the media with news regarding this issue, we are not fully informed about the factors of global warming, in fact, it is believed that cars are the largest producers of the negative impact to the environment; however, there is an even more damaging one: Buildings. These static works of construction are part of our daily lives, most of our work is mainly done within them, we spend 90% of our life in confined spaces and the concentration of population is much greater in these spaces than out of them (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003. Quoted by Kats, G. 2003). However, we are unaware that they “produce nearly half (48%) of all emission of greenhouse gases which is much higher than what emitted by vehicles (27%) and by the industrial sector (25%) “(The American Institute of Architects. 2006).

To explain how the greenhouse effect occurs inside the buildings, lets imagine them as giant glass cubes in which the sun’s rays penetrate throughout the day on the surface, which implies that the objects found within them will warm , an in so doing they “give back the heat in the form of radiation. As the temperature at which they heat up is relatively low, the radiation emitted has a long wavelength; this means they emit an infrared radiation, not visible. Over the years,  they will eventually give an equal amount of energy in the form of infrared absorbed in the form of sunlight, so their temperature  will tend to remain constant (although, of course, they will be warmer than if they were not exposed to direct action of the Sun) “. (Greenhouse effect, 2007). Thus the same thing happens in a greenhouse, where you can cultivate flowers and plants even though the outside temperature reaches lower degrees in temperature.

According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) the decade of 1998-2007 was the hottest of which has ever been documented. The global surface temperature for 2007 was estimated at 0.41 ° C/0.74 ° F over the annual average of 1961-1990: 14.00 ° C/57.20 ° F. (WMO. 2008. Quoted by Nodvin, S. 2008).

To counter this, a novel form of construction has been created, masterminded by a new generation of architects, designers and builders, who have expressed interest in creating a kind of architecture that is “friendly” with nature and sustainable over time, allowing the reduction of damage that conventional construction has done to the planet. This new form of construction is known as Green Building and is to “create healthier and more efficient, in terms of resource consumption, models of construction, renovation, operation, maintenance and demolition. The elements of green construction are: the sources of energetic efficiency and renewable energy, water management, waste reduction, specifications and construction materials preferably organic”. (Taken from http://espanol.orangecountyfl.net/orangecty/enes/24/_www_orangecountyfl_net/cms/DEPT/growth/building/greenbldg.htm)

There is a perception that the construction of Green Buildings is much more expensive than conventional construction, and indeed this is true, however the long-term cost is significantly lower. Studies show that the amount of the construction of Green Buildings is substantially lower (2%) of what is expected and price increases are related to the costs of architectural and engineering that this type of construction requires. The sooner this type of practice of Green Building is included in construction; the increase of its costs will be less.  (The United States Green Building Council, 2002. Cited by Kats, G. 2003).

However, despite short term cost increases, Green Buildings provide long-term benefits that conventional ones do not offer, for example: lower utility costs in electricity and water, environmentally effective use of building materials, enhancing the health and productivity, long term economic return, reducing environmental impact, among others. (Environmental Services, 2008)

Colombia has within its Green Building the Chamber of Commerce’s green building in Bogota, built in Salitre City. This magnificent building has 28 thousand square meters distributed in two basements, three floors of public attention, five levels for staff and 500 parking spaces. It has electronic accessories that allow the entry of people arriving in wheelchairs or who have some type of disability that prevents them from entering by stairs. On the second floor is the convention hall, which has a capacity for a thousand people, and has the possibility of being sub-divided into eight rooms, each for one hundred users.

Another example of Green Building in Colombia is the Family Compensation Fund Compensate, located in northern Bogota: Stands out the use of glass on the facade and inside there is a mixture of aluminum and wood. The building has 16,579 square meters and one of its most important features is an “evaporative cooling system that allows natural air collection, and after an interior process the air reaches the top and leaves the building, so that the installation maintains a pleasant temperature that can range between 18 and 21 degrees Celsius (Metrocuadrado.com, 2006), and within the building the services offered are: “multiple stadium, gymnasium, aerobics room, spinning, gourmet salon, spa area, pool, Turkish bath, sauna, Jacuzzi, game rooms, library, computer room (Internet) , VIP lounge, cafeteria and auditorium of 150 square meters, designed as a space for Film Society, with projection equipment, and a retractable tier; and – Medical care: 50 doctors, vaccination, laboratory, dental, radiology, psychology, rehabilitation, nutrition, gynecology, diagnosis, prevention, surgery and medicine in general “(Metrocuadrado.com, 2006).

In Latin America Argentina presents a very interesting Green Building: the building Malecon Buenos Aires. This is an office building of 125,000 feet ² which was built on an abandoned industrial area (his garage was built on the foundations of a warehouse dating from the nineteenth century) in Puerto Madero, an area of redevelopment in Buenos Aires. The construction was made as a long strait block in order to minimize solar gain in the structure and terminations of east and west sides of whom are united. The broad north facade, the first to be exposed to the sun, is shaped to follow the path of the sun and has many deep screens with umbrellas that virtually eliminate sunlight during peak cooling months. The south facade, which reflects the geometry of the northern facade, is equipped with the same system of high-performance curtain of the other facades, minimizing the solar gain; open floor plants and high floors provide flexibility for multiple office tenants or future uses. (From http://www.aia.org/aiarchitect/thisweek02/tw0419/0419tw1cote.htm, May 2008)

In the U.S. this type of buildings have great technical and financial support from the public administrations; in Europe there are funding programs such as PAE (Fed-IDE), SAVE 3, Thermi &, among others, which in addition to providing aid, certify buildings that meet the exact standards so they are differentiated as Green Buildings, giving them green or eco-labels (LEEDS-Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, ISO 14001, EEA, among others).

Finally what is intended with this type of construction, grants and certifications is to reduce energy consumption and exploit natural resources, so as to achieve the prolongation of the service life of the planet and the reversal of the ecological phenomena as the greenhouse effect, among others.



By: María Angélica Pérez Corcho

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